Liability Civil Under Common Law: A body of law consisting of past court decisions and customs and usages recognized by courts.
Liability Contingent: Liability for damages arising out of the acts or omissions of others, who are not employee or Agents of the entity held responsible.
Liability Contractual: Liability assumed under some contract such as a lease that would not be present except for the contract.
Liability Criminal: Criminal liability is enforced by the state and it results into punishment in the form of fine or imprisonment or both
Liability Insurance: Any form of coverage whereby the insured is protected against claims of other parties from specified events.
Liability Insurance Act Policy under “Public Liability Insurance Act 1991” (Hazardous substances) Effective date 1.4.1991 for new owners and 1.4.1992 for existing owners: To provide through Insurance, immediate relief by “owners” to persons affected due to: “Accidents: Fortuitous, sudden or unintentional occurrence” While “handling e.g., Manufacture, processing, treatment, package, storage, transportation by vehicles, use, collection, destruction, conversion, offering for sale, transfer or the like. Hazardous Substances viz., Any substance or reparation which, by its reasons of its chemical or physio-chemical properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other creature, plants, micro-organism property or the environment (the Environment protection Act, 1986) and as notified, by the Central Government (Public Liability Insurance Act – 1991) ” On No fault liability basis.
Insurance Limit: “Anyone Accident” – Minimum equal to “Paid-up capital up to maximum of Rs. 5 crores. “Anyone year” – up to a maximum of Rs. 15 Crores. Liability Beyond Insurance Limit: To be met by Environmental relief fund (ERF) Further liability beyond total of Insurance and ERF – to be borne by the owner. Contribution to relief fund: equal to insurance premium to be paid to the underwriting company. Limit of Indemnity: single limit to be selected not below the paid-UP CAPITAL of the insured up to a maximum of Rs. 5 crores. Measure of Indemnity: No fault basis. (a) Death and TPD: Rs. 25,000/- (b) PPD: on the basis of Percentage of disablement as Certified by authorized physician. (c) Loss of wages due to TPD not exceeding Rs. 1000/-per month up to maximum of 3 months subject to hospitalization exceeding 3 days and victim being above 16 years of age. (d) Medical Expenses up to Rs. 12,500/- additional in all above cases. (e) Property damage up to Rs. 6000/- on damage to Private property not belonging to leased to or under any other control of the owner. Maximum liability of insurer: As per limits above.
Liability Insurance, Bodily injury: Insurance against loss due to claims for damages because of bodily injury (including death) to persons not employees.
Liability Insurance Carriers Legal Liability Insurance: Covers Carriers legal liability as per provisions of Carriers’ Act 1865. In order to provide an insurance cover to the common carriers and transporters against the stipulation of absolute liability under the Carriers Act, the Carrier’s Legal Liability Policy has been devised. At present the CLL policy gives the following coverage:
Basic cover: covers damage to goods caused by fire, explosion and or accident to the vehicle carrying the goods due to negligence or criminal act of his servants. The cover will commence with the loading of the cargo and end with its unloading.
Wider cover: The following risks are covered in wider cover which is allowed as a package deal and no partial extension may be allowed: (i) Damage to cargo as in basic cover. (ii) Damage by fire, burglary, riot & strike and malicious damage affecting the goods at warehouses or transshipment yard, whilst in the custody of the carrier. (iii) Shortage of goods due to theft or pilferage of cargo at any time whilst in the custody of the carrier. (iv) Breakage, leakage, damage due to improper handling.
Exclusions: (a)Riot and Strike (available as add-on), war perils, nuclear and radiation perils, contractual liabilities, liability to own, employees, agents and sub agents and their properties and belongings (b) Losses due to inherent defects, mechanical or electrical derangements, (c) Consequential loses, and (d) Carriage of illegal, illicit or smuggled goods.
Duration: The cover is during transit, incidental storage, transshipments and up to seven days after reaching final place.
Liability Insurance, Charterers: This covers the damage sustained by the vessel during the period of charter for which the charterers are held legally liable. This also covers demurrage if the vessel is delayed to carry out repairs for which the charterers are held legally liable.
Liability Insurance, Cinemas: Policy covers legal liability for: Accidental bodily injury, Accidental damage to property of third parties. Policy also covers legal liability for accidental bodily injury / illness of a third party caused by poisonous or foreign or deleterious matter in food or drink served in the auditorium.
Liability Insurance, Clinical Trial Insurance Policy: The policy covers the sum which the insured shall be liable to pay as damages / compensation for claims made by subjects for death or injury or any other adverse reaction in the body as a result of participating in clinical trial. The term insured would include all stakeholders in the trial. The cover includes legal costs also. Breaches of data may also be covered. The policy is generally issued on NO Fault principle. The policy may be a single trial or multi trial policy. Post-trial coverage is also offered for a limited period as decided. The territorial limits are also specified. The policy does not extend to cover (i) Damages within permissible limits as are to be expected within such trials. (ii) Deliberate contravention of instructions by the subject (iii) Deterioration in condition which would normally have occurred even without the trial (iv) War and nuclear perils (v) Fines and Penalties.
Liability Insurance, Commercial General Liability / Combined General Liability / Common General Liability (CGL): The CGL policy is an ISO form, widely used to provide commercial enterprises with premises and operations liability coverage, products and completed operations insurance and personal injury coverage. Premises medical payments coverage is often included as well. Under a Public Liability the indemnity provided is for a claim due to legal liability arising out of accident occurring in the insured premises arising out of injury or damage. In case of a product liability policy the indemnity is for claims due to legal liability arising out of accidents arising out of defects in products specified. In contrast, the operative clause of CGL cover for legal liability to pay damages because of bodily injury or property damages. There are no limitations for cover in terms of insured premises or products specified as long as the occurrence and claims are in coverage territory specified, thereby providing a wider covers. CGL also provides cover for supplemental payments, medical expenses and fire damages. Cove rage is restricted to cover only third party liabilities.
Liability Insurance, Contractual Liability: Insurance against loss under a contractual liability agreement.
Liability Insurance, Cybercrime Liability: Scope of the Policy is to cover cyber liability exposures like Libel, Hacking, inadvertent virus transmission, copyright infringement, loss of identity. The policy coverage is on the lines of an errors and omissions policy to cover liabilities arising out of hacking email frauds, web developing, website maintenance and E-commerce.
Liability Insurance, Directors and Officers Liability & Insurance:
Liability, Directors and Officers Liability: The Corporate decisions that yesterday did not materially affect other people today powerfully impinge on their lives and the subject matter has a direct bearing on the potential liabilities of Corporate Directors’ and Officers’ today. The increase in litigation against directors reflects a change in the attitude of the general public towards greater management accountability and hence the position of a Director is becoming far more onerous. Actions are most likely to be commended in relation to: (i) Actual or alleged breach of trust (ii) Breach of duty or warranty of authority (iii) Neglect or Omission (iv) Error or misstatement or misleading statement (v) Failure to supervise or regulate properly.
Who might bring an Action? (i) Shareholders: alleging financial loss attributable to failure by Directors or Officers responsible (ii) Employees: alleging unfair dismissal, discrimination, sexual harassment or mismanagement of pension funds (iii) Customers: alleging that they have suffered financial loss following wrongful advice on the application or suitability of product (iv) Competitors: alleging that their businesses have been adversely affected by a restrictive trade practice e.g.: price fixing (v) Members of the Public: failure to effect and maintain adequate control or services. (vi) Regulatory Bodies: for offences under the Companies Ordinance or breaches in similar legislation.
Potential Allegations: The following list provides typical examples of “wrongful acts” which could be alleged against a Director or Officer – though, this is not an exhaustive list: (i) Inaccurate statements of financial conditions (ii) Errors in annual accounts (iii) Conflict of interest (iv) Lack of judgment, diligence or good faith (v) Mismanagement of funds (vi) Misstatements in prospectuses (vii) Allotment of shares (viii) Unauthorized or imprudent loans or investments (ix) Failure to obtain competitive bids (x) Imprudent expansion resulting in a loss (xi) Using inside information (xii) Unwarranted dividend payment, salaries or compensation (xiii) Misleading statements filed with the Stock exchange (xiv) Misrepresentation in acquisition agreement for the purchase of another Company (xv) Wrongful dismissal of an employee.
Possible consequences: Civil Action: May involve personal liability for: (a) Damages (b) Claimant’s Costs (c) Costs of Personal Legal Representation. Criminal Action: prosecution may be brought under various Statutes. Whilst fines and penalties under Criminal Actions are not insurable, Directors and Officers may face substantial costs in arranging legal representation to defend such actions. These legal costs are covered by the D & O insurance provided the defense is successful.
Liability Insurance, Directors and Officers Liability Insurance: The Directors and Officers of companies may become liable to pay damages for wrongful acts such as failure of supervision of the affairs of the Company etc. Directors and Officers liability policy is therefore designed to provide protection to Directors and Officers of a Company against their personal liability for financial losses arising out of wrongful acts or omissions in their capacity as directors or officers. The coverage is granted in two parts under the insuring clause: (i) Company Reimbursement: Insurance of the Organization itself – Organization is entitled (and often obliged) by way of its articles of association to indemnify its Directors and Officers. However, the extent of this indemnity is strictly limited under the Companies act. The organization may only reimburse to the extent of legal costs expended and then only if the Director/Officer successfully defends that action. (ii) Directors and Officers: (a) Insurance of the Director/Officer – if the action against him is successful, then the Director/Officer is “on his own”. He is exposed not only to legal costs but to any damages which might be awarded against him. The organization will now of course be precluded from indemnifying him.(b) The second part of the cover (D&O) will now respond, provided that the Director/Officer has not acted in a deliberately dishonest manner. Fines and other penalties are not recoverable. As in the case of other liability insurance policies, the D&O policy is subject to compulsory excess and certain exclusions. Besides, the policy provides for Directors and Officers to comply with certain specified claim conditions. Many coverage are provided under the policy as Add-on extensions.
Liability Insurance, Dram Shop Liability Insurance: A form of insurance contract that protects the owners of an establishment in which alcoholic beverages are sold against liability arising out of accidents caused by intoxicated customers who have been served or sold the alcoholic beverages.
Liability Insurance, Employers: Insurance against loss to claims for damages by employees for bodily injuries (including death); excludes liability under workmen’s compensation laws.
Liability Insurance, Farm Liability: This is a specially designed property liability package policy. The coverage applies to liability arising out of farming activities including products liability. Limited pollution cover for discharge of smoke or chemicals used in normal farming operations can be added. Employers’ Liability Coverage for farm workers can also be added.
Liability Insurance, Global Coverage Policy: Large business groups which operate in many countries have special insurance problems. They may have to arrange local insurance as per local laws. Nevertheless, the group head office may arrange a “Global Legal Liability Policy” to cover any gaps in local insurance cove rages or on an “excess of loss” basis to take care of large losses.
Liability Insurance Hotel Owners: Policy covers legal liability of Hotel owners for: (a) Accidental bodily injury (including death) of any visitor or guest including while using facilities such as Health clubs, Beauty parlors, Hair dressers Shops, Swimming Pools (life guard provided or not), Sports (indoor-Table Tennis, Squash, Bowling, etc.), (outdoor: Boating, Deep Sea Diving etc, Skiing, Hang Gliding, Sky Diving etc) (b) Accidental damage to the property of any visitor or guests. (c) Injuries (including death) due to food poisoning. (d) Loss of visitors property from the premises. The Policy covers legal liability only if both injury or damage is caused through fault or negligence of (i) the insured (ii) the insured’s contractor (iii) any of its employees or (iv) defect in the ways, works, machinery or plant.
Liability Insurance, Insurable Interest: Insurable interest is the legal right to insure. The three essentials of insurable interest are:
- The existence of a potential legal liability which is capable of being insured
- Such potential liability must be the subject matter of insurance, and
- The insured must bear a legal relationship to the subject matter whereby he will benefit on freedom from liability and will lose financially on creation of liability.
Liability Insurance, Lift Third Party Liability: Policy covers legal liability for accidental bodily injury / accidental Direct damage to wearing apparel or personal effects of third parties in connection with insured lift including machinery, plant, door, safety devices or other appliances.
Liability Insurance, Liquor Liability Policy: The policy is designed for manufacturers, distributors etc of alcoholic beverages. The policy covers the liability excluded under CGL Policy. The policy is also available to bars, restaurants etc for their so called “Liquor Liability” imposed by Common Law or by Statutes. Protects the owners of an establishment in which alcoholic beverages are sold against liability arising out of accidents caused by intoxicated customers who have been served or sold the alcoholic beverages. Refer: Liability Insurance, Dram Shop Liability Insurance.”
Liability Insurance, Market Pools: Market pools formed by a consortium of insurers are not very common in liability insurance except perhaps in extra-hazardous risks e.g., demolition contracts. However, public liability insurance for nuclear reactor operations is available on a pooling basis, from the “British Insurance (Atomic Energy) Committee comprising the insurance companies and Lloyd’s underwriters.
Liability Insurance, Medical Practitioners: Refer: Professional Legal Liability for Medical Practitioners.”
Liability Insurance, Multimodal Transport Operator (MTO) Liability Insurance Policy: The Multimodal Transportation of Goods Act, 1993 provides for legal liability for loss or damage to cargo. It provides for the creation of a licensed operator called the MTO who could be held responsible for the loss or damage to the cargo entrusted to them for transportation. One of the requirements of the MTO license is the insurance to cover liability that arises on them. MTO is liable for (a) Act for their Principal I arranging shipping and transport services, or (b) Contract with the cargo owner to transport goods; or (c) Provide expert advice, assistance and opinions. Although the MTO came into effect in 1993 Indian insurers were not providing this cover till 2001. Currently few insurers are offering this cover in the market. In the light of above Ministry of Finance had given special dispensation allowing foreign insurers to directly underwrite this business.
Coverage: To cover insured’s liability to (a) A customer or third party for loss or damage to cargo in the insured’s care, custody or control (ii) A third party for death, bodily injury or damage to property (c) A customer or third party for errors and omissions or professional negligence (iv) An Authority for fines and duty.
Cargo Liability: Indemnity is provided to the insured for its legal liability an claims expenses in respect of claims which arise from physical loss of or physical damage to cargo provided such liability arise from The Indian Multimodal Transport Act, FIATA or Combicon Bill of Lading or the Insured’s house bill of lading or standard trading conditions or other recognized transport convention.
Third Party Legal Liability: Indemnity is provided to the insured for its legal liability in respect of a claim arising from an accident causing (i) Bodily injury to a third party, or (ii) Physical loss or physical damage to third party property, or (iii) Consequential loss suffered by a third party.
Professional Indemnity: Usually an add on extension. Covers the legal liability and expenses arising from (i) The negligent performance of a professional duty, (ii) Fraud by an employee (iii) Libel, slander or infringement of personal rights that has not arisen from publication in an independent journal etc (iv) An unintentional breach of warranty of authority where the insured has contracted on another person’s behalf believing they have the authority to do so.(v) A misdirected claim against the insured being one which results from (a) an accident for which legal liability would in the normal course of vessel operations be covered by any protection and indemnity policy for the vessel owner or operator, or (b) A contract into which the insured entered, within the scope of the insured services believing that the insured was acting as the principal’s agent only.
Fines and Duties: This too is an extension if opted for.
Rating: (a) Gross Freight Receipts (GFR), (b) The number of containers handled (in terms of 20 TEU). The rate shall depend on (i) Limit of liability for cargo and TP Liability (ii) Extensions Opted (iii) Deductibles (iv) Past claims experience (v) Nature of cargo handled (vi) Destination of Cargo e.g., the % of cargo normally dealt with towards USA/South America/Eastern Europe/Africa etc. (vii) Quality of Management.
Liability Insurance, Nuclear Energy Liability Insurance: Usually provided by various pools formed by insurers. Two types of overage available (i) The facility form for operators for nuclear facilities and the suppliers. (ii) Transporters’ forms for those that provide services, material etc., for such facilities or transport property to and from a facility. The coverage is restricted to liability arising out of nuclear accidents. Thus, these also need CGL policy.
Liability Insurance, Personal: The Policy for individuals in respect of legal liability arising out of their own negligence or the negligence of their family members. These policies are known as “Personal Policies”.
Liability Insurance, Pollution Coverage: The practice varies among insurers. Some incorporate a general exception in the Public Liability policy; others consider each risk separately and decide to cover or exclude pollution liability.
Liability Insurance, Product Recall Insurance: The policy indemnifies the insured for recall expenditure incurred by insured. The cover includes costs such as customer notification, shipping costs and disposal costs. Coverage generally applies to the firm itself though additional coverage can be purchased to cover the costs of third parties. This policy is usually purchased by manufacturers such as food and beverages, toy, automobile parts manufacturer and electronics companies.
Liability Insurance, Products and Completed Operations Liability, CGL: The liability exposure of the manufacturer whose malfunctioning products may cause injury or property damage or of the contractors whose failed structure or projects may do the same. Coverage of the exposure is a feature of the commercial general liability policy. The insurance does not in any constitute a guarantee of either the insured’s product or work. Contrast with “Premises and Operations liability.”
Liability Insurance, Products Guarantee Insurance Policy: The product guarantee policy is designed to protect the insured against legal liability arising out of failure of products to fulfill their intended function. The policy will pay for (i) The cost of repairing or replacing a defective product, (ii) The cost of recalling defective products (iii) The financial losses caused by such products where there is no injury to or damage to property of third parties. Extension is available to pay for insured’s lost sales as a result of damage to the brand name of the product, advertising expenses already incurred, advertising expenses to re-launch the product etc.
Liability Insurance, Products Liability: Product liability Insurance provides an indemnity to the manufacturers or distributors and/or components is respect of their liability for accidental damage or injury resulting from defects in their products Product liability Insurance also provides an indemnity to manufacturers and others against third party claims for personal injury or damage to property which arise from the purchase or use of product. Ordinary public liability policies concern themselves, in the main with accidents occurring on specified premises. Product liability Insurance policies deal with the liability that may arise wherever the claims arising from the utilization of the covered product manufactured, sold, handled, or distributed by the insured or other trading under his name if the accident occurs after possession has been relinquished to other and away from premises owned, rented, or controlled by the insured.
Liability Insurance, Professional Malpractice: The liability of a professional for errors or omissions in the pursuit or his profession.
Liability Insurance, Property Damage: Insurance against loss due to claims for damages because of injury to others property.
Liability Insurance, Public Liability Industrial Risks: The Insurance Policy shall cover applies to Industrial and storage risks such as Depots, Warehouses, Godowns, Tank farms etc with aggregate limits of Indemnity any one year /during the policy period within the geographical limits of India. Policies shall cover all sums which the Insured becomes legally liable to pay as damages to third party in respect of accidental death/bodily injury/disease and loss of or damage to property arising out of claims first made in writing against the Insured during the Policy period, including legal costs and expenses incurred with prior consent of Insurers, subject always to the limits of indemnity and other terms, conditions and exceptions of the policy. It shall not be permissible to issue a Public Liability Policy with unlimited liability. The maximum ratio of limit of indemnity any one accident to any one year shall not exceed 1:4. Policy can be extended to cover Pollution Risks, Transportation risks outside Insured’s Premises, Cover for multiple units, Act of God perils, Technical Collaborators Liability For the purpose of rating industries are classified under four groups. The Company will indemnify the insured against their legal liability(other than liability under the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 or any other Statute that may come into force after the issue of this policy) to pay compensation including Claimant’s costs, fees and expenses anywhere in India in accordance with Indian Law. INDEMNITY LIMITS: Company’s total liability to pay compensation, Claimant’s costs, fees and expenses and defence costs shall not exceed the Any One Indemnity limit stated in the Schedule. Indemnity Limit applies to any one claim or series of claims arising from one originating cause. Any One Year Indemnity Limit shall represent the total amount of Company’s Liability during the Policy period.
Liability Insurance, Public Liability Non Industrial Risks: The Company will indemnify the insured against their legal liability to pay compensation including Claimant’s costs, fees and expenses anywhere in India in accordance with Indian Law. The Policy applies to non-industrial risks such as Hotels, Motels, Club Houses, Restaurant, Boarding and Lodging Houses, Flight Kitchens, Cinema Halls, Auditoriums, Theatres, Public Halls, Pandals, Open Air Theatres, Residential Premises, Offices/Administrative Premises, Medical Establishments, Institutions, Airport Premises (other than aviation liabilities), Schools /Educational Institutions, Libraries, Exhibitions, Fairs, and Fetes, Stadiums and Pandals, Permanent Amusement Parks, Film Studios – Indoor & Outdoor, Zoos, Depots, Warehouses, Godowns, Shops, Tank Farms and similar other non-industrial risks with aggregate limits of indemnity any one year /during the policy period. Policies shall cover all sums which the Insured becomes legally liable to pay as damages to third party in respect of accidental death/bodily injury/disease and loss of or damage to property arising out of claims first made in writing against the Insured during the Policy period, including legal costs and expenses incurred with prior consent of Insurers, subject always to the limits of indemnity and other terms, conditions and exceptions of the policy. It shall not be permissible to issue a Public Liability Policy with unlimited liability. The maximum ratio of limit of indemnity any one accident to any one year shall not exceed 1:4. Policy can be extended to cover Pollution Risks, Cover for multiple units, Act of God perils.
Liability Insurance, Ship Repairers: This covers liabilities of ship repairers towards vessels repaired by them.
Liability Insurance, Stockbrokers Liability: Stockbrokers can be liable for wrong advice to clients and also failure to execute or wrong execution of clients’ instructions to trade. One of the condition of the coverage is that they are registered members of a Stock Exchange.
Liability Legal, Losses: Legal liability losses may be classified by any of several characteristics. One possible classification is in terms of the entities to which liability may indebted: Customers, members off the general public, employees, governmental bodies to which an organization may own fines and possibly others. Another way of classifying liability losses is by the source off the legal duty whose breach has brought legal liability upon the organization: liability for breach of a contract (through intention non-performance or violation of a warranty, for example), tort or criminal liability. Finally, liability losses may be classified according to whether the amounts the firm must pay, or the revenue of which it is deprived, arise from payment off damages or fines to an entity whose legal rights have been violated, payment of legal defence costs, or expenses incurred or revenues lost because of the need to modify or cease a profitable activity.
Liability Legal, Losses: That liability which courts recognize and enforce as between parties litigant.
Liability Legal, Dram Shop Law: Liquor liability laws are called dram shop laws. They provide that a person serving someone who is intoxicated or contributing to the intoxication of another person may be liable for injury or damage caused by the intoxicated person.
Liability Legal, Employers: The common law or special statutory responsible of employers for job related injuries and disease caused by their negligence but not covered under workmen’s compensation.
Liability Legal, Joint and Several: Liability under which each off several joint wrong-doers are responsible either on a combined, undivided basis, or on an individual basis, for the full amount of damages for which the several wrong doers are collectively responsible.
Liability, No Fault: Compulsory Public Liability Insurance: Section 3 of Public liability Insurance Act, 1991 imposes a no-fault liability on the person who owns or has control over handling any hazardous substance to give relief where death or injury (including permanent total or permanent partial disability of sickness) of any person (other than a workman within the meaning of the workmen’[s compensation Act 1923) as amended or damage to any property, has resulted from an accident. No fault liability means that the claimant is not required to prove that the death, injury or damage was due to any wrongful act, neglect or default of any person.
Liability, Pro-rata: Liability on the part of an Insurer for not more than the proportion of loss which the amount insured bears to the amount of all Insurance policies covering the loss.
Liability, Protective Insurance: Liability Insurance against claims which may arise out of the insured’s contingent liabilities for the conduct of others, such as independent contractors.
Liability, Single Limit: Liability Insurance that imposes a single Policy limit on all claims per occurrence, regardless of the mix off bodily injury and property damage and the number of claims.
Liability, Specific Exposures and Problems: A business faces liability arising out of its property and activities. These sources of liability can be categorized as follows:
- Ownership, use, or possession of premises,
- Activities that are considered to be a public or private nuisance,
- Sale, manufacture and distribution of products or services.
- Property of others in the care, custody or control of the business.
- Fiduciary relationships such as the management of employee benefit plan assets or service on the firm’s Board of Directors.
- Professional activities.
- Vehicles – usually automobiles but may include aircraft, watercraft and other vehicles.
- Employees who may suffer a job-related injury or disease.
- All property and activities not listed under any other category.
Liability, Strict: A legal doctrine under which a manufacture is held responsible for injuries arising out of defective products, regardless of whether or not the manufacturer was negligent.
Liability, Tort: A tort is a civil wrong other than breach of a contract for which the court will provide a remedy in the form of an action for money damages: (i) Intentional torts: involving conduct that may be intentional or by design (but not necessarily with the intention that the resulting consequences should occur): (ii) Unintentional torts: involving the failure to act or acting not as a reasonable prudent person would have acted under the similar circumstances, and (iii) Wrongs: for which is business may be held absolutely or strictly responsible, intent or fault is not an issue under absolute or strict liability.
Liability, Vicarious: Employers ‘liability’ towards third parties for the acts of his servants.
Author
Lajpat Ray Chandnani
9672981414 | lajju1954@gmail.com
www.lajju.in
